LETTERS: Letters of Paul

http://stfaiths-burwood.org.au/paul.html

Letters of Paul
Contents
Introduction
Sources
Life
Dates
Theology
Letter to the Romans
Letters to the Corinthians
Letter to the Galatians
Letter to the Ephesians
Letter to the Philippians
Letter to the Colossians
Letters to the Thessalonians
Pastoral Letters (1 & 2 Timothy, Titus)
Letter to Philemon





Introduction
Paul is the greatest figure in the early history of the church and has had an enormous influence on Christianity and on church life and thought. This article deals with his life, work and thought; below there are separate articles on each of the Letters. The article is longer and more detailed than those of some of the other sections because of the influence of Paul's writings and because matters relating to Paul make up about one-third of the New Testament and his Letters over two-thirds of the New Testament Letters. To avoid repetition, the introductions to the separate Letters will concentrate on the occasion and main themes of each of the Letters and readers, when reading the individual Letters, should refer to this Introduction for more details on Paul's thought. Maps are essential to follow Paul's journeys (either a Bible Atlas or the maps attached to many Bibles) and it is useful to use a summary of the accounts in the Acts of the Apostles (see our Website).

Sources
Sources
The sources for Paul's life, work and thought are two-fold. The primary source is the collection of his Letters. The New Testament has thirteen Letters attributed to Paul. Seven of these - Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon - are of unquestioned authenticity. There is some doubt whether 2 Thessalonians and Colossians were written by Paul, more doubt on Ephesians and almost all scholars agree that the Pastoral Letters (1 & 2 Timothy and Titus) come from a later hand; all these letters use Pauline materials. These doubts are discussed under the individual Letters. The secondary source is the Acts of the Apostles, the second half of which is entirely devoted to Paul. Paul's Letters are never mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles and it is doubtful that the writer of Acts had access to them, as there are a number of discrepancies between the two sources. Paul is mentioned in 2 Peter (3.15) and his thought in James (2.14-26) but these add nothing to our knowledge of Paul.

Life
Paul (also called by his Jewish name, Saul) was born in Tarsus, the capital city of the Province of Cilicia in south-east Asia Minor (Acts 9.11; 21.39; 22.3). Tarsus was an important city on one the main trade routes between Asia and Europe. It was a cosmopolitan city with a significant Jewish population and was a centre of culture, especially in philosophy. Paul would have been exposed to the philosophy and pagan religions of the mixed population but it is clear from his Letters that he never studied these in depth and remained firmly in his Jewish heritage. He was a Roman citizen by birth - his father or some ancestor must have given some special service to the Roman Empire (Acts.16.37; 22.25-29). Both his parents (their names are not known) were Jewish of the tribe of Benjamin (Rom.11.1; Phil.3.5) and his religious training would have been by his parents and attendance at the local synagogue. His Letters show fluency in Greek and complex themes in his thought, so that he must have had an excellent education. He was taught a trade, referred to as a 'tent-maker' (Acts.18.3). Tents were made of wool, flax or goat's hides so that tent-making would involve working with leather. Paul used his trade to earn his own living so that he would not be a burden on his congregations (Acts.20.34; 1 Thess.2.9). At some stage, probably as a young man, he went for training in Jerusalem under the famous Rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 22.3) and became a strict Pharisee (Acts.22.3; 23.6; 26.5; Gal.1.14; Phil.3.5-6). Perhaps the whole family moved to Jerusalem - we know that at a later time Paul's sister lived there (Acts.23.16). In later life Paul was certainly not married (1 Cor.7.8). His attitudes to women and the fact that it was rare for a Pharisee to be unmarried have led some scholars to suppose that Paul was a widower (perhaps a disillusioned one! (1 Cor.7.28)). As a Pharisee, he was present at the stoning of Stephen and approved of the deed (Acts.7.57-8.1), took an active part in the persecution of Christians and was sent to Damascus to arrest the Christians and bring them back to Jerusalem for trial and punishment (Acts.8.3; 9.1-2; 22.4-5). It was on his journey to Damascus that the defining moment of his life occurred, when he had a vision of the Risen Lord and was converted to the Christian faith. His conversion is described three times in Acts (9.3-9; 22.6-11; 26.12-18) and referred to on many other occasions (1 Cor.9.1; 15.8; Gal.1.11-12; and others).

Following his conversion, he was baptised (Acts.9.10-18; 22.12-16) and preached in Damascus (Acts.9.20-25). He may have made a visit to Jerusalem from Damascus at this time (Acts.9.26-30) though in his own account in Galatians it seems more likely that this visit took place after his time in Arabia (Gal.1.15-20). From Damascus he went to Arabia. This was the Kingdom of the Nabateans, who occupied the area east of the Jordan Valley and Dead Sea south of Damascus down to the Gulf of Aqaba, with its capital at Petra (an area now occupied by southern Syria, Jordan and north-west Saudi Arabia). After three years in Arabia (Gal.1.18), he returned to Damascus and then made a visit to Jerusalem, where he saw Peter and James the Lord's brother (Gal.1.18-19). He was bitterly opposed by the Jews, was sent to Caesarea, where the opposition was repeated and then was sent to his home town, Tarsus, where he remained for some years (Acts.9.30). The long period in Arabia and Tarsus was a critical period for him. Unfortunately we have no writings of his from this period and we know nothing of his development. Paul's whole life and thought had been turned upside-down by his encounter with the Risen Lord and he needed time to re-orientate himself from being a strict Pharisee to that of a Christian. That he did this is clear, because when he started his missionary journeys and wrote his Letters the characteristic attitudes and doctrines that we associate with Paul were already formed.

At the end of this long period in Tarsus, he was called by Barnabas and made his centre at Antioch in Syria, where he remained for twelve months (Acts.11.25-26). During this time Paul and Barnabas made a visit to Judaea to bring aid to the Christians there to alleviate a famine (Acts.11.27-30) Paul and Barnabas then commenced what is traditionally called 'Paul's first missionary journey' (Acts.13.1-14.28) They visited Salamis and Paphos on the island of Cyprus, and then crossed to the mainland of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) visiting Perga in Pamphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe in Laconia - all southern provinces of Asia Minor.. They then retraced their steps strengthening the churches. From Perga they went to the port of Attila (near Perga) and from there sailed back to Antioch in Syria, where they made a report on their work. Paul's strategy in all his journeys has been copied by many other missionaries. He established churches in the main population centres, especially Roman provincial capitals, leaving the evangelism of the lesser centres and surrounding regions to the local Christians. In this way he could use the paved Roman roads. He was a great traveller; he did not have the benefit of planes, trains and buses - all his travelling had to be done on foot, unless he could use boats, which must have been physically exhausting. In the larger centres he was also able to ply his trade as a tent-maker and so support himself.

When they returned to Antioch, a serious argument broke out concerning the necessity for Gentile Christians to keep the Jewish religious laws, especially circumcision and the food laws - this matter probably arose also on the first missionary journey when both Jews and Gentiles were converted to the faith. It was not only an academic question; Jews could not eat and fraternise with Gentiles and so the unity and harmony of the churches were involved. To settle the question Paul and Barnabas and some others travelled to Jerusalem to consult with the apostles and elders there - the so-called Council of Jerusalem (Acts.15.1-35). The acceptance of Gentiles in the churches was already a fact and the Council decided that they should not be burdened with unnecessary rules. However, for the practical reasons referred to above, they asked the Gentiles to respect the food laws. Once the principle had been accepted Paul seems to have been willing to compromise on these practical matters and on a number of occasions did so (Acts.16.3; Acts.21.26; 1 Cor.9.19-23; Rom.14.1-23; 1 Cor.8.1-13). The battle was not over; when Peter was in Antioch, Paul had a confrontation with him on the issue (Gal.2.11-14) and years later in Jerusalem, Jewish Christians were still bringing up the matter (Acts.21.17-26). Jewish Christianity survived for some centuries but was only a tiny branch of a predominately Gentile church and so these rules became irrelevant. The principle that Paul fought for was of the utmost importance - it stressed the universality of the Gospel and prevented Christianity becoming merely a sect of Judaism.

On returning to Antioch Paul and Barnabas set off again to revisit the churches founded on the first journey (Paul's second missionary journey, Acts.15.36-18.22). Paul and Barnabas separated and Paul, accompanied by Silas, this time took the land route passing through Syria, Cilicia (Paul's home province) till they came to Derbe, Lystra and Iconium. They intended to go west to the province of Asia (the western portion of the Asia Minor peninsular) but were prevented and It seems that from Antioch in Pisidia they travelled north through Galatia and Phrygia. They wanted to enter Bithynia (on the Black Sea) but were again prevented and pressed on westward through Mysia to Troas at the entrance to the Dardenelles. Here Paul had a vision, "Come over to Macedonia and help us" (Acts.16.9) - one of the turning points in European history, the formal evangelisation of Europe. The second journey turned out to be much more extensive than the first.

Sailing from Troas they called in at the island of Samothrace and then to Neapolis (modern Kavalla), the port of Philippi and thence to Philippi, a major city in Macedonia. From Philippi Paul went toThessalonica, Beroea, Athens and Corinth, in the last of these staying a year and a half. Towards the end of his stay he was arrested, brought before the governor, Gallio, and discharged and set sail for Ephesus, from where he sailed to Caesarea. After visiting Jerusalem he returned to his major base, Antioch in Syria.

From Antioch in Syria he started on his third missionary journey (Acts.18.23-21.16). Going by the land route again he visited the churches in Asia Minor and then went on to Ephesus, where he stayed for two years. He then visited the churches in Macedonia and Achaia, founded on his second missionary tour. He intended to sail directly back to Jerusalem but a plot against his life forced him to return by the land route, with some associates going ahead of him. They all met in Troas, from where they went to Miletus and Ephesus. The farewell speech of Paul to the elders in Ephesus is one of the most moving stories in the Acts - it shows the respect and affection that the church had for Paul. He knew that prison and troubles lay ahead, and both he and they realised that he would never see them again. From Ephesus he visited various islands and finally landed at Tyre in Phoenicia, thence overland to Ptolemais, Caesarea and Jerusalem. The disciples pleaded with him not to go to Jerusalem because of the dangers there, but he refused this advice; moreover he was keen to deliver personally the gifts from the churches to the Christians in Jerusalem.

In Jerusalem he met James, the Lord's brother, and the elders of the church and reported the success of the Gentile mission (Acts.21.17-26). The Jewish Christians were still harping on the matter of the food laws, which must have been very irritating to Paul. Paul went into the Temple, a riot broke out as some Jews tried to kill him and Paul was arrested and put in prison, which was to last for two years. As he was being taken to the fort prison he asked the commander's permission to speak to the people (Acts.21.27-22.29) and then subsequently to the chief priests and the Jewish Council (Acts.22.30-23.11). The next morning there was a plot to kill Paul, the plot being exposed by the son of Paul's sister, and the commander sent Paul to Caesarea for safety to appear before the governor Felix (Roman procurator of Judaea) (Acts.23.12-35). Paul gives his defence before Felix (Acts.24.1-26), before Felix's successor, Festus (Acts.24.27-25.12) and King Agrippa (Herod Agrippa II, the last of the Herodian dynasty, who was familiar with Jewish law and customs) (Acts.25.13-26.32). All three found that the charges were false and Paul would have been released, except that he had appealed to the Emperor (Acts.25.10-12). Arrangements were therefore made to send him to Rome.

The graphic story of the journey to Rome and the shipwreck is told in Acts.27.1-28.15. So commenced Paul's last journey, not this time as a missionary, but as a prisoner in chains. They sailed from Caesarea to Sidon in Phoenicia and thence to Myra in Lycia (Asia Minor) where they changed ships. They called in at Cnidus in the province of Asia and then sailed along the southern coast of Crete to a harbour called 'Safe Harbour'. The weather was dreadful but the harbour was unsuitable to stay the winter there, so they decided to sail, against the advice of Paul. They were soon in trouble and could only drift helplessly in the storm and were shipwrecked on the island of Malta. They were received kindly and stayed the three months of winter there. They then sailed to Syraceuse on the island of Sicilly, Rhegium on the 'toe' of Italy and landed at Puteoli (on the northern shore of the Gulf of Naples). From there they went by land to Rome travelling along the famous Appian Way.

In Rome (Acts.28.16-31), Paul was put under house arrest with a soldier guarding him. He was given a considerable amount of freedom; he was able to have visitors and continue his preaching - activities which continued for two years. The Acts then ends abruptly and we have no firm evidence what happened to him - the result of his appeal, whether he was beheaded at the end of the two years or whether he was released and executed later. The Pastoral Letters imply that he was released, visited some of the churches again and was re-arrested and executed, but whether this is reliable history is much debated. It was most likely that he was executed in 63-64 A.D. at the end of his imprisonment, but later traditions imply that he was executed under the Emperor Nero in the persecution of the Christians following the great fire of Rome which broke out in July 64 A.D.

Paul had considerable intellectual powers and must have been a formidable opponent in argument. His arguments often seem artificial and unconvincing to us, e.g. Hagar and Sarah (Gal.4.21-31), but he was using the typical methods of arguing used by his Jewish contemporaries, methods that can be paralleled in many other Jewish writings He could be scathing of his enemies and even of fellow Christians when he considered that they were wavering in the faith. He was always outspoken and confident; sometime he was arrogant (e.g. in his dismissive attitude to the Jerusalem leaders. Gal.2.6) Yet he could be tactful, as in the delightful Letter to Philemon, and in almost all his Letters he showed great warmth and concern for individuals and his churches. He also worked well with a number of able co-workers, both men and women. He was not an impressive preacher - someone in Corinth said "Paul's letters are weighty and strong, but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech contemptible" (2 Cor.10.10). He was an urban dweller, based his work on large population centres, was highly educated and a Roman citizen; he moved easily in the upper echelons of society and would have had a special appeal to the highly educated. In this he was very different from Jesus; Jesus was a rural dweller, attracted large audiences of the common, mostly illiterate people and had a homeliness that is quite absent from Paul - one cannot imagine Paul telling the lovely stories and parables, so close to the peoples everyday lives, as Jesus did. Although Paul's Gospel was all embracing and his churches predominately poor with some rich members (1 Cor.1.26) and he frequently urges his followers to support the weak and the vulnerable, he did not have the empathy that Jesus had for women, for outcasts, for those on the fringes of society. Some memorable passages of his writings have immense power (Rom.3.21-26; Rom.6; Rom 7.14-25; Rom.8; Rom.13.8-10; 1 Cor.15; Gal.3.26-29; Gal.5.22-25; Phil.2.1-11; Phil.3.1-14; Eph.1.3-14; Eph.3.14-19; Col.1.15-20; and others) and some are of great beauty (1 Cor.13). He apparently had some physical weakness, his 'thorn in the flesh' (2 Cor.12.7-10), possibly epilepsy, but his journeys, trials, persecutions and sufferings show that he must have had immense energy, stamina and resilience. He was a man of great courage and absolutely fearless and so has been a model down the centuries for missionaries undergoing hardships and, in some cases, martyrdom, as was the ultimate fate of Paul.

Dates
The dates of the events in Paul's life are uncertain and can only be given approximately. The most helpful known date is when Paul in Corinth during his second missionary journey came before the proconsul of Achaia, Gallio, (Acts.18.12). Proconsuls were appointed in Rome in March or April and took office in the provinces by the middle of the year and were appointed for twelve months. An inscription from Delphi indicates that Gallio was proconsul in 51-52 A.D.. There are numerous references to time in the Acts and Paul's Letters and from the Gallio date we can work backwards and forwards. The change from governor Felix to Festus in 59 A.D. (Acts.25.1) helps to anchor the Jerusalem and Caesarea imprisonments.

Early 1st Century (probably about 10 A.D.) - Birth of Paul at Tarsus. This would make Paul in his mid-twenties at his conversion, mid-thirties when he started his missionary journeys and mid-fifties at his martyrdom.

34 - Conversion
45 - Moved from Tarsus to Antioch in Syria
46-47 - First missionary journey
48 - Council at Jerusalem
49-52 - Second missionary journey
53-57 - Third missionary journey
58-59 - Imprisonment in Jerusalem and Caesarea
60-62 - Imprisonment in Rome
63-65 - Martyrdom

The dates when Paul's Letters were written are discussed under the individual Letters. In the traditional order in our Bibles the Letters are not arranged in the order of writing but by size, the longest Letters coming first. The first of Paul's Letters to be written was 1 Thessalonians and, although the dates of composition are not exactly known, the most likely order of composition was; 1 &2 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus.

Theology
Paul's theology is complex and is not easy to summarise. It is many-sided and in the history of the church has been interpreted in many ways, some grossly misrepresenting Paul's thought. We feel sympathy with the writer of 2 Peter when he says about Paul's Letters, "there are some things in them hard to understand"! (2 Pet.3.15).

Before giving an outline of some specific themes (Sections 5-15), some general comments can be made (Sections 1-4).

(1) Paul was not the originator of the Gospel; he was its interpreter. The essentials of the Gospel had been preached by Peter and the other disciples and the faith had spread outside Palestine both to Jews and Gentiles before Paul became a Christian. On a number of occasions Paul mentioned the teaching he had received (1 Cor.15.3) and in some cases distinguished between the Lord's teaching and his own (1 Cor.7.12,25). Some sections of the church and some theologians take Paul's theology as the definitive theology of the faith, thus giving an inadequate and unbalanced view of the Gospel. All the New Testament writers have a different emphasis in interpreting the Gospel and, although there is an essential unity, there is great diversity of approach and expression, most notably between John's Gospel and Letters and Paul. Paul's emphasis has been dominant in the Western church, though much less so in the Eastern Church.

(2) Paul had great pastoral skills. Most of the Letters deal with specific issues arising in the life of the churches and it is difficult from these to create a consistent theological system - in fact, Paul is diminished and ossified if this is attempted. Paul had the ability to take these specific issues and from these lead his readers to the underlying principles, which are of universal significance. Good examples are the arguments over 'food offered to idols' (1 Cor.8) and the controversies over 'spiritual gifts' and the overriding centrality of love (1 Cor.12-14). Paul avoided the danger of preaching in generalisations - he always related these to concrete issues in people's lives. It is because of this feature of Paul's writings that the Gospel can be re-applied in every generation, even though the specific issues are no longer relevant.

(3) Paul showed little interest in the historical Jesus; as far as we know he never saw or heard him. He must have heard stories about Jesus from the disciples, which were later recorded in the Gospels, but he rarely alludes to them. His thought is dominated by the Risen Lord and he is interested, not in the events of the historical Jesus, but in their significance. Modern readers are fascinated by the human Jesus but this is alien to Paul's approach.

(4) Throughout the following notes there is great stress on Christ - faith in Christ, redemption through Christ, fulfilment in Christ, hope in Christ, and such phrases as 'in Christ', 'with Christ'. This is typical of Paul's language because the defining moment of his life was when he saw the Risen Christ on the Damascus Road. It needs to be remembered that Paul and the early disciples were Jews who had a long heritage of a fervent belief in one God. To Paul, Christ was in the form of God and equal with God (Phil.2.6) and the image of God (2 Cor.4.4; Col.1.15) - compare John "the Word was with God and the Word was God" (Jn.1.1). The Holy Spirit was also thought of as God in action. As a Jew, Paul would have been horrified at the thought of three Gods. It was the suspicion of blasphemy that enraged his Jewish opponents and Paul was anxious to show that Christ was God and that his belief in the one God of his Jewish heritage was not being compromised. When the NT writers tried to express the relationships within the Godhead, they used the familiar family terms and spoke of Christ as the 'Son' of God. This is as far as the NT writers took the matter. Later, in the church of the first few centuries, Christians tried to reconcile their firm belief in one God with the three different manifestations of God and came up with the doctrine of the Trinity. They used the Greek philosophy of the day with hair-splitting distinctions and often incomprehensible arguments, which are difficult for us today.

The stress on Christ is seen in our liturgical prayers where such phrases as, 'through Jesus Christ our Lord', come at the end of almost every prayer. Our styles of worship illustrate the results of the emphasis on Christ or the emphasis on the one God. In some parts of the church, both past and present, the emphasis on Christ has been exaggerated into what might be called 'Jesus religion', where the stress is solely on Jesus as a personal Saviour. This results in a warm, very informal style of worship with lively hymns and choruses and conversational prayers. This may weaken the sense of the mystery and grandeur of God, a God who is beyond anything that we can imagine. At the other extreme are some of the mystics, who hardly mention Christ at all and whose whole endeavour is to attain union with God, mainly through meditation and silence. This approach produces a much more formal worship structure with extensive use of ritual, symbolism and imagery, with the stress on adoration and awe. This conserves the mystery and grandeur of God but often lacks friendliness and warmth. Various church traditions have tried to combine these two approaches but this is not easy.

Paul had an intense personal relationship with Christ and this gives the impression that his thought followed the first approach above, but Paul was also overwhelmed by the mystery and greatness of God as he witnessed it in Christ (Rom.8.38-39; 16.25-27; Eph.1.3-10). As we read Paul's Letters we need to keep in mind that 'in Christ', 'in the Spirit' etc. are equivalent to 'in God' and that Paul believed (as we do) in one God. This has wide implications for dialogue with secular philosophies and other religions and with young people searching for spirituality.

The following are some of the significant aspects of Paul's thought that may be helpful in reading his Letters. Paul has naturally clothed his message in the thought- forms of his day, thought-forms that now do not resonate with those of modern readers, so I have added some comments to assist readers to see the relevance of Paul's message. It may be helpful to read through these points to grasp the richness of Paul's thought and then to return to specific aspects when one is reading the individual Letters.

The event that dominated the whole of Paul's thinking was the Damascus experience of seeing the Risen Lord.

(5) Paul was certain that he had seen the Risen Lord and called to be an apostle (1. Cor.9.1; 1 Cor.15.3-11; Gal.1.11-12; and many other references), just in the same way as the other disciples who had seen by the Risen Lord. Because he was on the defensive on this issue, he vehemently tried to justify himself with pleas to believe what he said, to follow his teaching and his example. This is irritating to many modern readers and it is this, together with his aggressiveness and certainty that he was right, which is largely the cause of the negative attitudes so often shown to Paul. Yet Paul considered that the authenticity of the Gospel which he was proclaiming - his major concern - depended on the recognition of his integrity.

(6) The major controversy, as has been indicated above when discussing Paul's life, in the early church was the attitudes of Christians to the Jewish law and customs - hence the frequent references to the 'law' in Paul's writings. Paul was proud of his Jewish heritage and, despite being continually rebuffed, persisted in arguing with his fellow Jews. He devoted three chapters of Romans (Ch.9-11) to this subject. He was convinced that the Jews had an important part to play in the ultimate inauguration of the kingdom of God and that the church had inherited the OT promises. We are not likely to be tempted to observe the OT laws and customs (though Christians in some ages have attempted this, often with strange results), but the principle is of great importance. What, as Christians, are our attitudes to the culture and customs of our own times? How far can we adapt our faith to them? Are we able to distinguish between our faith and our culture? This is well illustrated in the history of missions, especially in the 19th century, when most missionaries took 'Christianity and civilisation' to Africa, Asia and to the Australian Aborigines and ignored, or were hostile to, the local customs and culture. There is a tension between continuity and relevance. If we stress the former, carrying on the language, rituals, thought-forms and images of a bygone age, the faith loses its relevance; if the latter, we can lose the essential message of the Gospel. Paul's discussions on the 'law' have thus become increasingly important as we live in a post-Christian, secular society.

(7) Arising out of Paul's discussion of the 'law', was Paul's concept of freedom. Freedom is mentioned by Paul more than by any other NT writer - he has often been referred to as the 'the apostle of freedom' (2 Cor.3.17; Gal.5.1,13). Paul stressed that Christ freed us from the 'slavery of sin' but also from being bound, as the Jewish Christians were demanding, by the customs of our culture. Paul honoured the laws of the OT; he held them to be good and of value, but they were only our custodians until Christ came (Gal.3.23-26). In the same way much of our culture and many of our customs are good but not binding on us. Freedom protects us from the dangers of legalism (Gal.2.4), but does not give us an excuse for licence - it is subject to the over-riding obligation to love our neighbour (Rom.13.8-10) This is immensely liberating; we are no longer locked into the past, fearful of change, but can stride out in confidence into the new world, with trust in God and assured of his continual support and presence.

(8) The centre of Paul's thought is the kingdom of God and its fulfilment in Christ (1 Cor.15.20-28). Paul says, "with all wisdom and might, he [God] has made known to us the mystery of his will, according to his good pleasure that he set forth in Christ, as a plan for the fullness of time, to gather up all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth" (Eph.1.8-10). Paul felt strongly that a new era, a new creation, had been inaugurated with the coming, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In this he was influenced by the apocalyptic movement in Judaism which developed in the few centuries before Christ. It despaired of the fulfilment of the promises of the OT (Israel had been under foreign occupation since the Exile) and believed that only God's direct intervention could fulfil their hopes. The apocalyptic writers envisaged a mighty struggle between the powers of good and the powers of evil, with God being ultimately triumphant. This is also the background of Jesus, as his sayings in the Gospels clearly show. Paul, with his stress on the kingdom of God follows closely the teaching of Jesus, "The time is fulfilled and the kingdom of God has come near; repent and believe in the good news" (Mk.1.15) and in the Gospels there are a large number of parables and sayings of Jesus dealing with the kingdom of God. Paul and the early Christians, taking the cue from the sayings of Jesus, thought that the return of Christ in his glory was immanent - Paul thought that it would be in his lifetime (1 Thess.4.13-18). This was mistaken and was later modified to stress the importance of being ready for the end which may come at any time. This ultimate triumph of God was the hope that sustained Paul in his adventurous life.

(9) How then do we restore our relationship with God and enter this new era? Paul would say that it comes through faith. Faith has two meanings in the NT. (1) Faith meaning to trust, put one's confidence in, to give one's self to, Christ. (2) Faith in the sense of the faith, i.e. a set of statements that one must believe (our Creeds are an example). Paul occasionally uses faith in the latter sense but the former is the dominant meaning of faith for Paul. As Paul saw the power of sin in our lives, including his own (Rom.7.13-25), which was separating us from God, he realised that we could not overcome this barrier by our own action, even by zealous following of the law which he had tried at a Pharisee. The more intensely we believe in a holy God, the more the barrier becomes increasingly daunting. To this there are no exceptions, "For there is no distinction; since all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" (Rom.3.22-23). To Paul the only solution was to trust in Christ and receive as a gift his forgiveness, to be reckoned as righteous (in theological language, to be justified) so that the barrier is removed and our relationship with God then becomes possible

(Rom.3.24-25). A human parallel would be the situation when two people are estranged and one is sorry that he/she has hurt the other and asks for forgiveness. In the forgiving, the hurt is still in the memory but its power to destroy the relationship has been removed. This theme was the core of the message stressed in the Reformation.

(10) As stressed in the last quotation from Romans, Paul linked this justification with the death and self-giving of Christ on the cross. "For Jews demand signs and the Greeks desire wisdom, but we proclaim Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and foolishness to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Gentiles, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God" (1 Cor.1.22-24). It is often a stumbling block also to modern readers. Paul is using the imagery of sacrifice and particularly the Jewish sacrifices in the temple, with which he and his Jewish readers would be quite familiar (this is elaborated in detail in the Letter to the Hebrews). Animal sacrifices were common in the ancient world. Animals were slaughtered before the altar and the blood sprinkled on the altar - a revolting sight. To the modern mind animal sacrifices are primitive and repulsive - in fact, such scenes and treatment of animals would not be permitted in a modern humane society. The sacrifices were performed to appease the wrath of the gods when famine or plague struck the people, or to ask for favourable treatment, for the birth of a son, for good harvests or for protection from enemies. These elements were also present in the Jewish sacrifices, but there was another aspect in the Jewish sacrifices. The worshipper offered the life of the animal as a substitute for the worshipper offering up his or her own life to God. This is the image that Paul is using; Christ was offered as a sacrifice to God for us. Christ's work in taking away the sin of the world has given rise in the history of the church to a large number of theories, some of them arising from Paul's language (called in theological language, 'theories of the atonement'). None of these theories is without difficulties; each stresses one or more aspects of Christ's work of salvation but needs to be complemented by other aspects. For most readers these theories can be ignored. It is enough to accept that Christ died for us in order to bring us into a new relationship with God.

Christ crucified has been portrayed in a vast number of devotional works, in art and in music - at their best, sublime, at their worst sentimental and trivial. The suffering of Christ has resonated with Christians down the centuries, especially those undergoing suffering and distress. The cross has been stressed particularly by the Western Church; the focus of attention in the Eastern Church has been on the resurrection and exaltation of Christ. However, it is important to note that the cross does not have significance apart from the resurrection. If Christ was not raised from the dead, the crucifixion was simply another noble person in history dying because he or she held to firm and unwavering convictions; the person receives our admiration for faithfulness to an ideal, but that is all. It follows that without the resurrection Christ's work of salvation through the cross is of no effect "If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile and you are still in your sins" (1 Cor.15. 17). In a sense, the resurrection validated the cross. This is why the resurrection was stressed in the earliest preaching; the disciples were witnesses of the resurrection (Acts.1.8; 2.32; 3.15; 4.2; etc). Paul (and all the NT writers) echoed this theme. The cross and resurrection are linked in another way, well illustrated in Paul's teaching on baptism and the Lord's Supper (see (13) below). Unless we participate in the suffering of Christ, by participating in the suffering of our world, then we will not know the power of the resurrection.

(11) Linked closely with the Risen Christ is the work of the Holy Spirit (Jn.14.25-26). In Paul it is often difficult to know when he is speaking of the Risen Christ and when he is speaking of the Holy Spirit. God in action through the Holy Spirit plays a large part in Paul's message, because he and the early Christians experienced the power of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit brought them to the Father (Rom.8.16), it gave birth to the church (Acts.2), it brings freedom (2 Cor.3.17), it gives spiritual gifts (1 Cor.12-14), it assists us in our prayers (Rom.8.26-27), it produces the fruits of the Spirit in daily living (Gal.5.22-23). Paul also looks beyond the action of the Spirit in Christians and the Christian church - he sees the active presence of God in creation (Rom.1.20-23) and in men and women everywhere (Paul's speech at Athens, Acts.17.22-34) - this has wide implications for our attitude to the world and our environment, to humanity and to other philosophies and religions.

(12) Paul stresses in every Letter the moral behaviour of Christians. He was criticised on the grounds that salvation was too easy - just have faith but do not worry too much about changing your lives, God's grace is always available to restore you to God's favour (Rom.6.1). The Letter of James takes up this point in detail, claiming that faith that does not issue in deeds is useless. Paul points to the universal virtues, "For the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; against such there is no law…….If we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit" (Gal.5.22-26). The over-riding action is love (1 Cor.13).

When Paul turned to specific areas of social relationships his principles broke down and he substituted expediency for principle. This is well illustrated in his discussion on women and marriage. On the one hand, he emphasised the equality of all before the God, "there is … neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal.3.28) and that Christ has broken down the barriers between human beings and God and between human beings themselves. Christians had liberty to change the existing codes of behaviour (see (7) above). On the other hand, when the women of Corinth took him at his word by breaking with tradition and began to preach and pray in worship (1 Cor.11.1-16), the social fabric was disturbed and Paul forbad women to speak in church "as the law also says" (1 Cor.14.33-35). So Paul forgot his principles and with the early church sank back into the patriarchal system which has persisted till modern times. In the same way, despite "there is …..no longer slave or free" there is not one word in the Paul's Letters condemning slavery. Probably Paul considered that the fledgling church had enough problems to encounter in a hostile world without being the cause of social upheaval, which would have drawn the attention of the Roman authorities. So when we read in Paul's Letters his views on social relationship (often called the 'domestic codes'), such as between husbands and wives, masters and slaves, young and old, etc, we should note that they depend more on the customs of the period than on Christian principles. It is sad that some Christians persist in trying to perpetuate these antiquated social relationships - and in the process portray Christianity as quite irrelevant and alienate all those sincerely working to overcome discrimination and uphold human rights. The question for us is, 'What elements of our culture, which we accept without questioning them or because it is expedient, are contrary to the principles of our faith?' Future generations will have no difficulty in seeing how we have comprised our faith, just as we can see how Paul and the early Christians did so.

(13) Paul places great emphasis on the church; after all, he founded many churches and spent most of his Christian life visiting, writing letters to, and nourishing infant churches. The word for church is 'ekklesia' which has a root meaning of 'assembly of people called together for some purpose'. In Paul's Letters it generally refers the local churches or groups of churches, only in a few instances does it refer to the universal church (1 Cor.10.32; Gal.1.13; Eph.1.22; 3.10; 3.21; Col.1.18). It never refers to a church building. Congregations met in the houses of the wealthier members of the congregation or, under persecution, in secret locations.

The word 'ekklesia' has two meanings in Paul: 'the people of God' and 'the body of Christ'. The concept of 'the people of God' has links with the OT where the Jews were the chosen people of God. With the rejection of Christ by the Jews, Paul considered that the Christians were now the chosen people of God and had inherited the OT promises; they were participants in a new agreement (new covenant, 'New Testament') and were the new Israel (1 Cor.11.25; 2 Cor.3.4-6). For Christians to be the people of God is to be 'in Christ', sharing in the gifts of the Spirit. The church as 'the body of Christ' only occurs in Paul. Paul often uses the imagery of a body (Rom.12.3-8; 1 Cor.12.12-31) The image stresses unity and diversity. The phrase 'body of Christ' signifies a special bond, a special relationship between Christ and the church and a special relationship one with another. "so we, who are many, are one body in Christ and individually we are members one of another" (Rom.12.5). Christ is the head of the body, the church (Col.1.18; Eph.1.22-23). There is great stress on the unity of the church amidst its diversity and the importance of every member of it (1 Cor.12.12-31)

The church as an institution developed slowly in NT times. It met regularly on the first day of the week for worship, fellowship and mutual support (Acts.20.7; 1 Cor.16.2) but the organisation was loose. It had a variety of leaders: apostles, bishops and deacons (Phil.1.1), presbyters (elders), workers of miracles, prophets, teachers, healers, helpers, administrators, and others. Most of these faded out in the 2nd century and the hierarchical structure of bishops, priests (our word 'priest' comes from the word 'presbyter') and deacons became the norm. In Paul and the NT bishop and presbyter were equivalent and formed a group of men who had the oversight of the local churches. It would seem that gradually by the beginning of the 2nd century out of this group of leaders some became dominant and so arose a separate group of bishops (the word for bishop, episkopos, means 'overseer'). Despite the loose organisation of the church, it was already carrying out its typical functions - worship, fellowship and mutual support, preaching and teaching, celebrating baptism and the Lord's Supper, service to others and mission.

Baptism became the ceremony of entrance into the church. Paul was baptised though apparently he did not baptise many people himself (1 Cor.1.14-16). Paul draws out the redemptive significance of baptism. It is a cleansing from sin (1 Cor.6.11), the receiving of the gifts of the Spirit and entering a new life in the Spirit (1 Cor.12.13). But Paul has a deeper meaning for baptism - the Christian enters by baptism into the suffering and death of Christ and is raised to new life with Christ in his resurrection (Rom.6.3-4; Col.2. 12). Baptism gives entrance to a new life in Christ (Gal.3.27; Col.3.9-11).

Paul only mentions the Lord's Supper twice. Both are concerned with abuses relating to the Lord's Supper, one concerning offerings to idols (1 Cor.10) and the other breaches in fellowship because of distinctions between the rich and the poor (1 Cor.11.17-34). In the middle of the second passage Paul describes the institution of the Lord's Supper by Jesus, which he must have learnt from the disciples who had been with Jesus, because he was not present. This is the earliest account of the institution (1 Cor.11.23-26) - the others are in the Gospels (Mt.26.26-29; Mk.14.22-25; Lk.22.17-19). It is clear from these passages that the background of the language is the imagery of the Jewish sacrifices and that the Lord's Supper, like baptism, has redemptive significance (see (10) above). We are to "remember" (1 Cor.11.24-25) Christ's sacrifice on the cross for us. But Paul does not conceive of this remembering as passive; Paul speaks of the Christian "sharing" in the body and blood of Christ (1 Cor.10.16). This sharing, participating, in the suffering and death of Christ brings us into touch with Christ himself and with the sacrifice which he has made for us so that we may continuously obtain its benefits. To take part in the Lord's Supper unworthily (1 Cor.11.27-34) is to fail to grasp the significance of Christ's sacrifice on the cross and to carry on practices, such as discrimination, which are incompatible with participating in Christ. The Lord's Supper also brings us into fellowship with other Christians and this is the theme of 1 Cor.11, where the Christians in Corinth were destroying this fellowship by discriminatory actions. As 1 Cor.11 indicates the Lord's Supper was part of an ordinary meal and this was the usual practice in the NT church. It was not until the 2nd century that these two were separated and the Lord's Supper became a ceremony on its own. We do not know the form the service took in NT times - our first good description comes from the middle of the 2nd century. There was very little controversy about the Lord's Supper (Eucharist) until the 9th century when the relationship between Christ's presence in the Eucharist and the bread and wine started to be discussed. This has bedevilled the discussion of the Eucharist ever since and has led to the scandal of our Lord's own institution being the cause of division between churches - Paul, with his reprimands in 1 Cor.11 would have strongly disapproved of this unchristian behaviour.

(14) Two of the most common phrases in Paul's writings are 'in Christ' and 'with Christ'. The phrases ' in Christ' , 'in him', 'in the Lord'', are rich in meaning; they indicate an intimate personal connection, a special relationship between Christ and the believer, the believer being involved in his or her innermost being. It is close in meaning to another common phrase, 'in the Spirit', as Paul often does not make a rigid distinction between the Risen Christ and the Spirit. Paul speaks of life in Christ (Rom.6.11,23), love in Christ (Rom.8.38-39), grace in Christ (1 Cor.1.4). freedom in Christ (Gal.2.4), blessing in Christ (Gal.3.14), unity in Christ (Gal.3.28) and in many other ways. The phrase 'in Christ' refers to our intimate relationship with Christ, Christ's relationship with the church and the relationships between believers. It has an ethical dimension - if we live our lives 'in Christ', we will exhibit a life of love and show the fruits of the Spirit. It has wider implications; Christ is a cosmic Christ, "for in him ….all things were created….. He himself is before all things and in him all things hold together" (Col.1.15-17), so that being 'in Christ' is to bring us into a relationship with the created world, our earthly environment. Paul sees the ultimate conquering of death 'in Christ' and the permanent life with Christ, "for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ" (! Cor.15.22).

(15) The other phrase, 'with Christ', points to 'hope', which is one of the key words of Paul, one of the triad of faith, hope and love (1 Thess.1.3; 5.8; 1Cor.13.13). Paul had a strenuous and dangerous life with much persecution and suffering but he was confident in the promises of God and this gave him patience in suffering (Rom.8.22-25). Under all circumstances, however difficult, God was the God of hope who filled the church with all joy and peace (Rom.15.13). In one of the great passages in his Letters, Paul, like the athlete in a race, strains forward confidently to the goal of God in Christ (Phil.3.13-14). As in the theme of being 'in Christ', Paul sees hope as embracing more than humanity; in a grand vision he sees it involving the whole creation (Rom.8.18-25). Paul was confident of the final victory of Christ and the fulfilment of all things, so he says "Therefore my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always excelling in the work of the Lord, knowing that in the Lord your labour is not in vain" (1 Cor.15.51-58).

Letter to the Romans
The occasion for Paul writing this Letter is clear from Rom.1.1-15 and 15.14-33. He had often expressed the wish to visit Rome and now the opportunity seemed to present itself. He felt that he had completed his missionary work in the East and hoped to visit the church in Rome and then go west as far as Spain on further missionary journeys, But first he had to travel to Jerusalem to deliver the aid which he had been collecting for the church in Jerusalem; after that he would travel to Rome. He never made that journey as a free man but was arrested in Jerusalem and taken to Rome as a prisoner and as far as we know never went west from Rome. The Letter was written to introduce himself to the members of the Roman church. Why Paul wrote such a long and complex Letter as a letter of introduction is unknown - perhaps Jews and Jewish Christians had given such a bad impression of him to the Roman Christians that he thought that he needed to give an outline of his position to reassure them.

The period when the Letter was written is straightforward. He was just completing his third missionary journey and was in the province of Achaia (Greece), probably in Corinth. where he stayed for three months (Acts.20.1-3). The Letter was therefore written in 56 A.D. or 57 A.D. It was the last Letter written by Paul as a free man.

Paul did not found the church in Rome; neither did Peter (there is an unhistorical legend that Peter founded the church and was there for 25 years as bishop of Rome!). Peter did not seem to be in Rome when Paul wrote Romans, nor when he wrote his Letters from prison in Rome; however, there is more credible evidence that Peter was in Rome at some stage and was martyred there during Nero's persecution in the mid-60's. There is evidence that the Roman church existed in the 50's and perhaps in the 40's. It was almost certainly founded by Christians (merchants and other travellers) travelling from the East to Rome - there was a great deal of traffic to and from Rome at this period. The church was a mixture of Jewish and Gentile Christians. From the subjects discussed in Romans it seems that Paul had considerable knowledge about the church, no doubt from travellers that he knew in the East.

The Letter is the most systematic of Paul's Letters and has been intensely studied for centuries (In a bibliography in a modern commentary are listed over 100 commentaries on Romans, dating from the 3rd to the 20th century - and only the significant ones are listed!). However, it is not a "compendium of Christian doctrine" as one of the Reformers believed; a number of Paul's doctrines are not mentioned. It has been the most influential of Paul's writings. Paul was at the height of his powers and had behind him a successful missionary career. The book is very carefully constructed and must have involved considerable time and effort.

Except for the introduction (1.1-15) and the concluding personal notes (15.14-16.27), the Letter is divided into four sections. The first section(1.16-4.25) deals with God's saving action in Christ made possible by faith. He shows that all (both Gentiles and Jews) have sinned and cannot recover a right relationship with God by their own efforts (1.16-3.20) and then positively that this relationship can be restored by faith in Christ (3.21-31). Chapter 4 illustrates this from the example of Abraham. The second section (5.1-8.39) deals with the Christian life resulting from faith in Christ. It results in peace with God (5.1-21), newness of life (6.1-23), freedom from the law (7.1-25) and in the indwelling of the Spirit (8.1-39). The third section (9.1-11.36) covers the problem raised by the rejection of Christ by his own people, the Jews, and the place of the Jews in the fulfilment of God's purposes. The fourth section (12.1-15.13) deals with a miscellaneous group of ethical problems faced by Christians in daily life.

For a more detailed study of the themes of the Letter, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the Letter are as follows;

1. Introduction. (1.1-17)
(a) Greetings (1.1-7)
(b) Paul and the Roman Church (1.8-15)
(c) Theme of the Letter (1.16-17)
2. Being righteous before God by faith (1.18-4.25)
(a) The sins of the Gentiles (1.18-2.16)
(b) The sins of the Jews (2.17-3.8)
(c) All have sinned without exception (3.9-3.20)
(d) God's righteousness by faith (3.21-26)
(e) All boasting is excluded (3.27-31)
(f) The example of Abraham (4.1-25)
3. Life in Christ (5.1-8.39)
(a) Peace with God (5.1-11)
(b) Contrast between Adam and Christ (5.12-21)
(c) Walking in newness of life (6.1-23)
Dead to sin, alive to God (6.1-14)
Choice between masters (6.15-23)
(d) Freedom from the law (7,1-25)
Analogy from marriage (7.1-6)
The law and sin (7.7-13)
The inner conflict (7.14-25)
(e) Life in the Spirit (8.1-39)
Becoming children of God (8.1-17)
Gospel of hope (8.18-30)
God's love in Christ (8.31-39)
4. The unbelief of Israel and the faithfulness of God (9.1-11.36)
(a) The failure of Israel (9.1-18)
(b) Remnant remained faithful (9.19-29)
(c) Righteousness on the wrong basis (9.30-10.21)
(d) Rejection not final (11.1-10)
(e) Rejection resulted in salvation of the Gentiles (11.11-24)
(f) All Israel will be saved (11.25-36)
5. Daily life in faith (12.1-15.13)
(a) Theme of the section (12.1-2)
(b) Relationships with fellow Christians (12.3-8)
(c) Miscellaneous instructions (12.9-21)
(d) Obligations to the state (13.1-7)
(e) Love for one another (13.8-10)
(f) Salvation is near (13.11-14)
(g) The 'strong' and the 'weak' (14.1-15.13)
6. Conclusion (15.14-16.27)
(a) Reasons for writing (15.14-33)
(b) Personal greetings (16.1-23)
(c) Final hymn of praise (16.25-27)


Letters to the Corinthians
Corinth was one of the most important cities in Greece. Its history goes back to the beginning of the first millennium and was mentioned by Homer and Corinth played a vital role in Greek history. In B.C. 146 it was conquered by the Romans and completely destroyed and was only sparsely inhabited for the next century. In B.C. 44 Julius Caesar re-founded the city for Roman veterans and it expanded rapidly. It was made the capital of the Province of Achaea (Greece) in 29 A.D. It owed its importance to its site, situated on the Corinthian Isthmus, a narrow band of land, 6 km in length. It controlled the traffic between northern and southern Greece and between two seas. It had two ports, Lechaeum on the Gulf of Corinth (leading to the Adriatic Sea) and Cenchreae on the Saronic Gulf (leading to the Aegean Sea). Cenchreae is mentioned in the NT. In ancient times the ships were dragged across the Isthmus on rollers so that the ships could avoid the turbulent weather and seas around the southern tip of Greece. The Emperor Nero commenced cutting a canal across the Isthmus but this was abandoned after a few months and not completed till 1893. In Paul's day, Corinth was a prosperous, cosmopolitan city, a hotbed of religions and cults and renowned for its commercialised vice. It must have been a bewildering environment for the early church.

The history of the Corinthian letters is rather complicated and some details are uncertain. Paul founded the Corinthian church on his second missionary journey (Acts.18.1-18). He remained in Corinth for 18 months and when he left it was a thriving Christian community. He then returned to Palestine and soon after commenced his third missionary journey. He visited Ephesus where he stayed for two years. While in Ephesus he heard that there were problems in the Corinthian church and wrote a letter to them (1 Cor.5.9-13). This letter has been lost but from this passage it appears that it concerned sexual immorality in the church. We do not know the reception this letter received but in response the Corinthian church wrote asking questions on a number of problems (1 Cor. 7.1). The Letter, our 1 Corinthians, is in response to the problems that were clearly present in the church. The Corinthians were not a harmonious community and were claiming wisdom apart from Christ (many religions and cults promised wisdom) so Paul deals with the divisions in the church, the wisdom of God and the centrality of Christ crucified (1.10-4.21). He then deals with problems of immorality (Ch.5), lawsuits against Christians (Ch.6), marital problems (Ch.7), food offered to idols (Ch.8.1-11.1), women in worship (11.2-16), the Lord's Supper (11.17-34), spiritual gifts (Ch.12-14) and the resurrection (Ch.15). So 1 Corinthians is not a systematic treatise but answers to problems and questions raised in the daily life of a Christian community. As indicated above, it was written from Ephesus and is dated about 54 A.D.

Paul hoped that his Letter would solve the problems. This was not so. In the interval between 1 Corinthians and 2 Corinthians the situation had changed dramatically. A number of charismatic leaders had entered the church and the church was racked with divisions, arguments and rivalries. These leaders and church members were challenging Paul's authority. In distress Paul wrote another letter, a severe one, also lost (2 Cor.2.1-11), which was taken by Titus, Paul's companion, to Corinth. Although Acts does not mention it, it seems that Paul made a quick visit to Corinth, probably by ship, which would only take a few days (2 Cor.13.2). Paul then left Ephesus and Titus left for Corinth to try to restore order in the church. Paul made his way through Macedonia and during this journey he wrote 2 Corinthians, about 55 A.D. Paul met Titus in Macedonia; Titus brought the good news that the situation in Corinth had improved. Some scholars think that 2 Corinthians is made up of several letters which have been combined together by a later editor. The matter is not of great importance because the letters (if more than one) were written close to each other in time The tone of 2 Corinthians is quite different from that of 1 Corinthians. The first section (1.12-7.4) deals with Paul's defence of his activities which were criticised by the Corinthians; he was accused of being unstable, unreliable, weak is speech and action, unworthy to be an apostle - in fact he was not an apostle at all! Paul strongly rejects these charges. The next section (7.5-9.15) deals with Paul's plans and the collection which Paul was organising for the church in Jerusalem. The last section (10.1-13.10) is a vigorous attempt to defend his authority as an apostle. Paul travelled through Macedonia to Corinth and stayed there for three months and, as far as we know, the problems were resolved and personal relationships between Paul and the church restored.

For a more detailed study of the themes of these Letters, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The Letters to the Corinthians give us a vivid picture of the internal workings of an early church. They remind us that the church, although called by God, is a very human institution. The squabbles in the Corinthian church have been repeated many times in the history of the church and are a challenge to us to strive for tolerance, harmony and peace.

An analysis of 1 Corinthians is straightforward but in 2 Corinthians Paul was on the defensive and the Letter was written with considerable emotion. It does not follow a logical sequence so that a number of analyses are possible. The contents of the two Letters are as follows:

1 Corinthians.
1.Introduction (1.1-9)
(a) Greeting (1.1-3)
(b) Thanksgiving (1.4-9)
2. Divisions in the church (1.10-4.21)
(a) Rival groups in church (1.10-17)
(b) The word of the cross (1.18-31)
(c) Paul's preaching (2.1-5)
(d) True wisdom (2.6-16)
(e) One foundation in Christ (3.1-23)
(f) The Corinthians and the apostles (4.1-13)
(g) Paul's plans (4.14-21)
3. Problems in the church (5.1-6.20)
(a) Immorality in the church (5.1-13)
(b) Litigation amongst fellow Christians (6.1-11)
(c) The use of the body (6.12-29)
4. Answers to questions (7.1-15.58)
(a) Marriage (7.1-40)
(b) Food sacrificed to idols (8.1-11.1)
(c) Women in worship (11.2-16)
(d) The Lord's Supper (11.17-34)
(e) Spiritual gifts (12.1-14.40)
Gifts of the Spirit (12.1-3)
Diversity of gifts (12.4-31)
Love the greatest gift (13.1-13)
Further comments on gifts (14.1-40)
(f) Resurrection (15.1-58)
The common Gospel (15.1-11)
Implications of the Gospel (15.12-34) The resurrection body (15.35-50)
The transformation (15.51-58)
4. Conclusion (16.1-24)
(a) The Jerusalem collection(16.1-4)
(b) Paul's plans (16.5-12)
(c) Final greetings and blessing (16.13-24)

2 Corinthians.
1. Introduction (1.1-11)
(a) Greeting (1.1-2)
(b) Thanksgiving (1.3-11)
2. Paul's Plans (1.12-2.13)
3. Christian mission and ministry (2.14-7.4)
(a) The Christian mission (2.14-17)
(b) The old and the new (3.1-18)
(c) Spiritual treasure and our mortal bodies (4.1-5.10)
4. Paul's relationship with the Corinthians (7.5-9.15)
(a) Paul's plans (continues 2. above)(7.5-16)
(b) Christian giving and the Jerusalem collection (8.1-9.15)
5. Paul's authority threatened (10.1-13.10)
(a) Call for obedience (10.1-6)
(b) Paul's authority as founder of the church (10.7-18)
(c) Paul and the false apostles (11.1-15)
(d) Paul's sufferings (11.16-33)
(e) Paul's visions (12.1-10)
(f) Paul's concern for the Corinthians (12.11-21)
(g) Final warnings (13.1-10)
6. Final blessing (13.11-13)


Letter to the Galatians
Galatia is in the centre of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century B.C. Celts entered Asia Minor and formed the Kingdom of Galatia. Their territory was gradually extended over the next two centuries so that it came to include some of the cities in Laconia. Pisidia and Phrygia, which Paul had visited on his first missionary journey. In B.C. 25 the Kingdom was handed over to the Romans and became a Roman province with its capital at Ancyra. Paul on his second missionary journey passed through the northern portion of the province on his way to Troas, but Acts does not mention that he founded any churches there, although Acts does not cover all of Paul's activities. Lack of certainty of the exact destination of the Letter in Galatia does not alter the argument of the Letter. Most scholars consider that it was written about 54 A.D. or 55.A.D. from Ephesus during Paul's third missionary journey or from Macedonia on the same journey and thus was written at the same time as the Letters to the Corinthians and before the Letter to the Romans.

Galatians is one of the most striking of Paul's Letters. He is angry with the Galatians and saddened by their weakness of faith. Most of the Galatian churches were predominately Gentile and Jewish Christians, probably from the church in Jerusalem, had come to these churches and were trying to convince their members that to be a Christian and inherit the OT promises they had to follow the Jewish law, especially circumcision and the Jewish customs such as the food laws. This was the controversy that plagued Paul throughout his ministry. In addition, they cast doubt on Paul personally. They held that the only authentic apostles were the disciples in Jerusalem who had been with the Lord and that Paul was an upstart claiming that he had seen the Lord and that he was an apostle just like the Jerusalem apostles.

These criticisms determined the contents of the Letter. Its central theme is freedom. Apart from the introduction (1.1-10) and the conclusion (6.11-18), the Letter is divided into three sections. The first section (1.11-2.21) is personal. Paul defends his authority, stressing that he received it direct from the Lord and was not dependent on human authority such as the apostles in Jerusalem, and gives details of his life to prove this point. The second section (3.1-4.31) shows that men and women come to God, not by works of the law, but by faith. The story of Abraham was always quoted by his opponents and Paul asserts that Abraham too was accepted by God through his faith and not by his works. The third section (5.1-6.10) is an appeal to the Galatians to preserve their freedom and live the life of the Spirit. The Letter contains two of Paul's best loved sayings: on equality in union with Christ (3.28) and on the fruits of the Spirit (5.22-23).

For a more detailed study of the themes of the Letter, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the Letter are as follows:

1. Introduction (1.1-10)
(a) Greeting (1.1-5)
(b) Purpose of the Letter (1.6-10)
2. Paul's authenticity (1.11-2.21)
(a) Paul's Gospel not of human origin (1.11-24)
(b) Approved by the other apostles (2.1-10)
(c) Paul and Peter (2.11-14)
(d) Paul's Gospel: salvation by faith (2.15-21)
3. Argument of the Letter: Faith in God (3.1-4.31)
(a) Galatians early experience (3.1-5)
(b) Experience of Abraham (3.6-9)
(c) Covenant with Abraham still in force (3.10-14)
(d) Purpose of the law (3.15-25)
(e) Union with Christ in baptism (3.26-29)
(f) Illustration from guardianship (4.1-7)
(g) Appeal not to return to their former life (4.8-20)
(h) Allegory of Hagar and Sarah (4.21-31)
4. Freedom in Christ (5.1-6.10)
(a) Preserve your freedom in Christ (5.1-15)
(b) Walk in the Spirit (5.16-26)
(c) Bear one another's burdens (6.1-10)
5. Conclusion (6.11-18)
(a) Warning (6.11-16)
(b) Personal plea (6.17)
(c) Final blessing (6.18)


Letter to the Ephesians
Ephesus was the largest and most important city in the Province of Asia in Asia Minor; its ruins are now visited by thousands every year. It was a commercial and religious centre; especially famous was its Temple of Artemis (Diana). In Paul's day it was the fourth largest city in the Empire. Its history which dates back to the 2nd millennium B.C. came under the control of the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Seleucids and finally the Romans in B.C.190.

Paul first visited Ephesus on his second missionary journey as he was returning to Jerusalem (Acts.18.19-21). On the outward section of his third missionary journey he stayed there for at least two years (Acts.19.1-20.1) and as he was returning he met the elders (Acts.20.16-38). Ephesus is also mentioned in a number of other Letters (1 Cor.15.32; 16.8; 1 Tim.1.3; 2 Tim.1.18; 4.12; and in the Book of Revelation (1.11; 2.1-7).

The destination of the Letter is uncertain. The words "in Ephesus" (Eph.1.1) are missing from the best manuscripts and were almost certainly not in the original text. Moreover, the Letter has no personal greetings and this is inconceivable if the Letter was written to Ephesus, where Paul had spent over two years and would have had many friends there. It is much more likely that the Letter was an encyclical, a circular Letter to a number of churches in the Province of Asia, which would have included Ephesus. Since the late 18th century there has been doubt about the authenticity of the Letter and most scholars consider that the Letter was not written by Paul but by some disciple of Paul who was thoroughly familiar with the Pauline writings and used some of the Pauline material. The grounds for this decision are mainly four: the language and style of writing are not like Paul's as seen in his authentic Letters (a point noted by Erasmus in the 16th century); its content gives the impression of readers that were not acquainted with Paul (1.15; 3.2); the writer uses Pauline material from a number of Paul's Letters, especially Colossians; and there are marked theological differences, especially its emphasis on the church, the absence of references to the Second Coming and a different conception of marriage from that in 1 Corinthians. It is generally held that the Letter dates from 80-100 A.D. There are no clues in the Letter which would indicate the place of composition. It is important to note that the Letter is not a forgery or that any deception is involved. If a modern writer published a work in the name of someone else and used that person's material, he or she would be accused of deception and plagiarism. This was not so in the ancient world where this practice was common and acceptable. The writer was considered to be honouring a famous man of the past or a revered teacher by publishing the work in his name.

Apart from the introduction (1.1-2) and the conclusion (6.21-24), the Letter is divided into two parts. The first part (1.3-3.21) deals with God's plan, especially in relation to the Gentiles. It places redemption as part of God's cosmic plan, the world-wide redemption in Christ, the new life in Christ and the mystery which has been revealed. In the second part (4.1-6.20) Paul outlines the behaviour which is appropriate for this new life in Christ. The whole Letter takes a cosmic view of the Gospel, the superiority of Christ over all heavenly and earthly powers and the unity and equality of the members of the church whatever their background.

For a more detailed study of the themes of this Letter, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the Letter are as follows:

1, Introduction (1.1-2)
2. God's plan of redemption (1.3-3.21)
(a) Blessings in Christ (1.3-14)
(b) Paul's thanksgiving and prayer (1.15-23)
(c) From death to life (2.1-10)
(d) All one in Christ (2.11-22)
(e) The mystery of God revealed (3.1-13)
(f) Paul's prayer for his readers (3.14-19)
(g) Praise to God (3.20-21)
3, Ethical instructions (4.1-6.20)
(a) Unity and diversity in the church (4.1-16)
(b) The old life and the new (4.20-5.20)
(c) Household codes of conduct (5.21-6.9)
(d) Christian warfare (6.10-20)
4.Conclusion (6.21-24)
(a) Personal plans (6.21-22)
(b) Grace (6.23-24)


Letter to the Philippians
Philippi was an important city in Macedonia. A small town existed when Phillip II of Macedon re-founded the city (B.C.356) and called it after his name. In B.C.167 Macedonia was conquered by the Romans and became a colony in B.C.146. Philippi was famous in Roman history for the battle near the city (B.C.42) when Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) and Antony defeated the murderers of Julius Caesar, Brutus and Cassius. In Paul's day it was a cosmopolitan city with a significant Jewish population. The city itself was 16km inland, its port being Neapolis (modern Kavala), where Paul landed on his way to Philippi. Philippi's importance was due to its position on a rich agricultural plain, the nearby gold mines and its site on the Via Egnatia, the great Roman road stretching from the Adriatic to Byzantium. Today the city is uninhabited and consists only of Roman and Byzantine ruins.

Paul founded the church, the first church he founded on European soil, during his second missionary journey (Acts.16.11-40). He visited the area again on his third missionary journey, both travelling to Corinth and on the return journey (Acts.20.1-6). The Letter indicates the Paul was in prison when he wrote this Letter. Paul had been in prison many times and there has been much discussion concerning which prison he is referring to - the traditional view is that he is referring to his imprisonment in Rome and this seems to be the most probable. This would date the Letter as 61 or 62 A.D. The Philippian church helped Paul in Thessalonica and in other ways and had recently sent assistance to him in prison and this last was the occasion for Paul to write the Letter, thanking them for their concern for him. Paul had great affection for the Philippian church and this is shown in the Letter. It is a relief to turn from a heavy theological Letter like Romans and a Letter showing bitter controversy like Galatians to this warm, personal Letter. It has not been as influential as Romans or Galatians but it is full of affection, thanksgiving and prayer. It has also the wonderful section on the incarnation and on the imitation of Christ in his humility and service (Phil.2.1-11) and the moving testimony of Paul as he waited for his verdict, whether execution or release, with contentment and peace, with his determination, like an athlete straining for a goal, to press onwards to the goal of union with Christ (Phil.3.1-4.1). These passages have been an inspiration to generations of Christians and have made this personal Letter the most loved of all Paul's Letters.

The Letter has the characteristic Pauline theology but these are not emphasised. Most of the Letter is personal. It commences with greetings, thanksgivings and prayer (1.1-26) and then the passage urging the Philippians to follow the manner of life with the example of Christ before them (1.27-2.18). It then reverts to personal matters and his plans (2.19-30). Chapter 3 gives his personal testimony and Chapter 4 matters of personal behaviour and more personal details and greetings. Striking is Paul urging his readers not to have 'anxiety about anything'(4.6) - from a man almost certainly contemplating execution.

For a more detailed study of the themes of this Letter, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the Letter are as follows:

1. Introduction.(1.1-11)
(a) Greetings. (1.1-2)
(b) Thanksgiving and prayer (1.3-11)
2. Personal notes about his situation (1.12-26)
3. Imitation of Christ (1.27-2.18)
(a) Steadfastness (1.27-30)
(b) Humility and service following Christ's example (2.1-11)
(c) Witness (2.12-18)
4. Personal plans (2.19-30)
5. Paul's personal testimony (3.1-4.1)
6. Various instructions (4.2-9)
(a) On unity (4.2-3)
(b) On joy and peace (4.4-7)
(c) On behaviour (4.8-9)
7. Acknowledgment of church's gift (4.10-20)
8. Final greeting and grace (4.21-23)


Letter to the Colossians
Colossae was a city in Asia Minor, situated in the valley of the Lycus River (a tributary of the Meander River), about 180km south-east of Ephesus. It was a prominent city in classical Greek times owing its importance to the production of dyed wool and to its situation on the trade route between Ephesus and the East. It was close to two other cities in the Lycus Valley, Hierapolis and Laodicea - both are mentioned in the NT. These two cities gradually outstripped Colossae and when Paul wrote to the Colossians it was a small and unimportant city. It lasted for a few more centuries and then was abandoned; it ruins were not discovered till 1835.

Paul did not found the Colossian church (2.1) though he was indirectly associated with it. It (and the other two cities) were evangelised by Epaphras, a disciple of Paul's (Col.4.12-13). It would seem that Epaphras had become alarmed at a cult that had developed in the Colossian church and consulted Paul in prison (Col.1.7-8; Philemon 1.23). Paul decided that the situation was serious and that he would write a letter to the Colossians. Epaphras remained with Paul and Tychicus (accompanied by the slave Onesimus) conveyed the letter to the Colossians (Col.4.7-9). This places the Letter in the Roman imprisonment about 62 A.D., written at the same time as the Letter to Philemon. Since the early 19th century doubt has been cast on the authenticity of this Letter. This was mainly based on the style of the Letter (unlike many of Paul's Letters) and because the Letter seemed to reflect a period in the church after Paul's time. These reasons are not conclusive and there are aspects pointing to Paul as the author and many scholars still hold the traditional view that the Letter was written by Paul.

What was this cult that dominates this Letter?. We have no independent evidence for this cult; its practices have to be inferred from the Letter itself. It seems to have been a mixture of Jewish and pagan speculation, magic, astrology, asceticism and mystery cults. Its Jewish connections are shown by its stress on circumcision, the Sabbath, new moons and other details of the Jewish calendar, angels and food and drink laws. On to this has been grafted astrological features, mysteries and special initiation rites, 'elemental spirits of the universe' and a vague mysticism. These pagan features are not unlike the beliefs of some cults present today. Paul opposes both of these features in a magnificent passage (1.15-20) stressing that Christ: was the image of the invisible God and of the essence of God; was the agent of the creation of everything in the universe which would find its fulfilment in him; was the agent of reconciliation and in him was all wisdom and perfection; was the head of the church and pre-eminent in every way. There was no need for human speculation and esoteric mysteries and practices. This background determines the arrangement of the Letter. After an introductory section of greetings, thanksgiving and prayer (1.1-14), Paul states the all-sufficiency of Christ and tackles the features of the cult (1.15-3.4), completing the Letter with ethical exhortations (3.5-4.6) and personal notes (4.7-18). The Letter gives a striking picture of the 'cosmic Christ', so in tune with the ecological and environmental thinking of our own day.

For a more detailed study of the themes of this Letter, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the Letter are as follows:

1. Introduction (1.1-14)
(a) Greeting (1.1-2)
(b) Thanksgiving and prayer (1.3-14)
2, Christ the image of God (1.15-2.5)
(a) The pre-eminence of Christ (1.15-23)
(b) Paul's ministry (1.24-2.5)
3. The Colossian cult (2.6-3.4)
4. Christian behaviour (3.5-4.6)
(a) General instructions (3.5-17)
(b) Specific instructions (3.18-4.6)
5. Conclusion (4.7-18)
(a) Personal plans and messages (4.7-17)
(b) Final greeting (4.18)


Letters to the Thessalonians
Thessalonica (modern Salonica) was the capital of the Roman Province of Macedonia and therefore an important city; it was founded in B.C. 315 by a Macedonian general. Macedonia had been a kingdom since the 7th century. Its most famous kings were Phillip II (B.C. 359-336), who turned the kingdom into a world power, and his son, Alexander the Great (B,C. 336-323), who extended the kingdom as far as India. It was conquered by the Romans in B.C.167 and annexed as a Province in B.C.146. In Paul's day Macedonia included almost all of northern Greece and contained a number of cities where Paul founded churches (Modern Macedonia only embraces the northern half of ancient Macedonia - early in the 20th century the ancient land was divided between Greece and Serbia). The cities were prosperous because they were on the Via Egnatia, the great Roman road from Dyrrhachium and Apollonia on the Adriatic Sea through Thessalonica and Philippi and on to Byzantium. This was the road that Paul would have used in Macedonia. Thessalonica was a cosmopolitan city with a significant Jewish population.

The foundation of the church in Thessalonica during Paul's second missionary journey about 49 A.D. is described in Acts .17.1-9. The church was mainly Gentile. Paul then left Thessalonica and travelled to Berea, Athens and Corinth. When he reached Athens he was anxious about the church undergoing persecution and sent Timothy back to Thessalonica to find out how they were faring (1 Thess.3.1). By the time Timothy returned (1 Thess.3.6) Paul had moved on to Corinth and It was probably in Corinth that he wrote 1 Thessalonians about 50 A.D.

Timothy brought back a good report of the church in Thessalonica but there were some difficulties. The Jews had made a concerted attack on the Christian community, especially trying to discredit Paul, casting doubt on his integrity and insinuating all sorts of discreditable motives. In addition, there was some confusion about the Second Coming of Christ, especially relating to those who had died before Christ's coming. Some of the members were weak and faint-hearted in faith and other were idle and refusing to work. These issues determined the contents of the first Letter. In the first three Chapters Paul defends his position and re-assures the church of his integrity and the transparency of his motives. In Chapters 4 & 5 he deals with a variety of subjects on Christian behaviour, including a discussion on the Second Coming of Christ (1 Thess.4.13-5.11). The Letter is full of praise for the church and Paul obviously had much affection for the struggling community.

There has been some doubt whether the second Letter was written by Paul. It is held by some that the Letter implies a later development of the church and seems to give an account of the Second Coming which is at variance with that in the first Letter. These reasons, however, are not conclusive and there are good reasons for concluding that the second Letter was written by Paul from Corinth soon after the first Letter. The first Letter had not solved all the problems in the church; the Jews were still persecuting it, the idlers were still troubling its members and there were new questions about the Second Coming. However, the church was coping extremely well and Paul praises their efforts and urges them to further endeavour. This praise takes up the first Chapter. He then discusses the Second Coming in Chapter 2 and the idlers in Chapter 3. Paul's affection for the church shows clearly in this Letter also.

For a more detailed study of the themes of these Letters, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the two Letters are as follows:

1 Thessalonians 1. Introduction (1.1)
2. Paul's defence (1.2-3.13)
(a) Thanksgiving for faithfulness (1.2-10)
(b) Paul's conduct on his visit (2.1-12)
(c) The gospel and the Jews (2.13-16)
(d) Intended visit (2.17-20)
(e) Sending of Timothy (3.1-5)
(f) Timothy's return and report (3.6-10)
(g) Prayer (3.11-13)
3. Various instructions (4.1-5.24)
(a) Introduction (4.1-2)
(b) On immorality (4.3-8)
(c) On love (4.9-12)
(d) On the Second Coming (4.13-5.11)
(e) On the faint-hearted, weak and idlers (5.12-14)
(f) Hold fast to the good (5.15-22)
4. Conclusion (5.23-28)
(a) Prayer (5.23-24)
(b) Final requests (5.25-27)
(c) Grace (5.28)

2 Thessalonians
1. Introduction (1.1-2)
2. Thanksgiving and Prayer (1.3-12)
3. The Second Coming (2.1-12)
4. Words of Encouragement (2.13-17)
5. The idlers (3.1-15)
(a) Be faithful in the Lord (3.1-5)
(b) Warning to the idlers (3.6-15)
6. Conclusion (316-18)
(a) Prayer for peace (3.16)
(b) Greeting (3.17)
(c) Grace (3.18)


Pastoral Letters (1 & 2 Timothy, Titus)
Since these letters are written to 'pastors' of the Christian communities, they are generally referred to as the 'The Pastoral Letters'. They are written to two of Paul's most experienced and trusted colleagues, Timothy and Titus. Timothy had a Jewish mother and Gentile father and may have been converted on Paul's first missionary journey. He was prominent on the later journeys being sent as Paul's representative to Thessalonica, Corinth and probably Philippi. He was with Paul during his Roman imprisonment. He was the co-author with Paul of four of Paul's Letters (2 Cor., Phil., 1 Thess., Philemon). His ultimate fate is unknown. Titus was a Gentile convert and was present with Paul at the Jerusalem conference. He was used by Paul to carry out a delicate mission to Corinth when Paul was out of favour with the Corinthian community. His ultimate fate is also unknown.

When we turn to the Pastoral Letters the references to Timothy and Titus are odd. Timothy is referred to as young and inexperienced (1 Tim.4.12), he needs to know how to behave in church (1 Tim.3.15) and he is to flee youthful passions (2 Tim.2.22). Titus is given the most elementary instructions about the appointment of elders in the church (Titus.1.5-9). It is hard to imagine Paul writing in this way to experienced co-workers and raises the suspicion that the Letters were not written by Paul. This suspicion is confirmed by many other features of the Letters. The style is different from that of Paul's Letters - it is pedestrian and lacks the vitality and turbulence of Paul's style. The vocabulary is different also. The Letters stress values that are typical of the ethical writings of Roman authors and many of the characteristic words in Paul's Letters are missing. In particular, there is no mention of the cross (so central to Paul's thinking) and the author completely misunderstands Paul's teaching on the 'law'. Theologically there is no mention of Christ's per-existence, the incarnation is treated as an epiphany, not a divine humiliation as in Paul, and the books are full of civic virtues (often called 'bourgeois values), such as temperance, common sense, seriousness, piety, godliness, domestic fidelity, correct use of money and modesty. One modern writer says, "The style of the moralist has taken the place of the style of the prophet". The Letters also reveal a much more structured and organised church than was present in Paul's day. These and many other features have convinced most scholars that the Letters have been written by a later author and not by Paul and that the Letters were written around the year 100 A.D.. Readers are referred to the Web notes on Ephesians for comments on the practice in ancient times of writing works in the name of someone else.

It is not easy to assess the historical material given in the Letters. They cannot be fitted into the life of Paul as given in his Letters and in Acts. They presuppose that Paul was released after his first imprisonment in Rome and that he continued missionary work in the East, was rearrested in Rome and executed. There is no independent evidence for these events and they are unlikely, but the Letters may contain some scraps of authentic historical information.

The purposes of the Letters seem to have been three. The authors wanted to give instructions for the organisation of the church, especially to enhance the authority of the leaders; they were worried about growing heresies and they wanted to make certain that the Pauline heritage was preserved in the churches. These aims have governed the selection of the material. In the first Letter to Timothy, after a greeting (1.1-2), are warnings against false teachers and the use of the law (1.3-11) and a more personal note about Paul (1.12-20). This is followed by instructions on worship (2.1-13), on leaders (3.1-16) and on false teachers (4.1-16). Instructions on various groups in the church follow (5.1-6.2) and a final section on false teachers and personal advice to Timothy. The second Letter to Timothy is much more personal. After a greeting and thanksgiving (1.1-5), the author urges Timothy to endure suffering as Paul has done (1.6-2.13) and then contrasts the true teaching from the false (2.14-4.8), concluding with personal notes (4.9-22). This Letter is portrayed as the final Letter of Paul as he was approaching martyrdom. Titus is a shorter Letter. Titus is assumed to be in Crete and is instructed on the qualifications needed for a leader (1.5-9). Most of the remainder of the Letter concerns the carrying out of true teaching (1.10-3.8).

For a more detailed study of the themes of these Letters, see the theology section of the Introduction to Paul's Letters on this Website.

The contents of the three Letters are as follows:

1 Timothy
(a) Greeting (1.1-2)
(b) Warning against false teachers (1.3-7)
(c) Use of the law (1.8-11)
(d) Paul as the true teacher (1.12-20)
(e) How to behave in worship (2.1-15)
(f) Qualifications for bishops and deacons (3.1-13)
(g) Hymn on the mystery of our religion (3.14-16)
(h) Warning on false teachers (4.1-5)
(i) How a church leader should behave (4.6-16)
(j) Instructions on various groups: widows, elders, slaves (5.1-6.2)
(k) Warning on false teaching (6.3-10)
(l) Christian life-style (6.11-19)
(m) Conclusion and blessing (6.20-21)

2 Timothy
(a) Greeting (1.1-2)
(b) Thanksgiving and encouragement (1.3-18)
(c) Advice to Timothy (2.1-13)
(d) False teachers (2.14-3.9)
(e) Instructions to Timothy (3.10-4.5)
(f) Paul's last testament (4.6-8)
(g) Personal notes (4.9-18)
(h) Final greetings (4.19-22)

Titus
(a) Greeting (1.1-4)
(b) Qualifications for a bishop (1.5-9)
(c) False teachers (1.10-16)
(d) Qualities for various groups: (2.1-10)
(e) The coming of Christ (2.11-15)
(f) Behaviour in society (3.1-8)
(g) Avoid divisions and controversy (3.9-11)
(h) Final instructions and blessing (3.12-15)


Letter to Philemon
This Letter is to an individual person, Philemon, a prosperous Christian from Colossae, whose slave, Onesimus, had run away, probably after theft (1.18). Like many run-away slaves he had come to Rome, seeking the anonymity of a large city. For some reason he had come into contact with the imprisoned Paul and was converted and had a warm personal relationship with him. Run-away slaves under Roman law received severe penalties and Paul is asking Philemon not to invoke these but to receive him back into his household, 'as a beloved brother' (1.16). This Letter shows Paul's tact and powers of persuasion - unfortunately we do not know the reception Onesimus received. Onesimus returned to Colossae with Tychicus, the bearer of Paul's Letter to the Colossians (Col.4.7-9), so that this Letter was written at the same time as the Colossian Letter, about 62 A.D. from Paul's Roman prison. It is noteworthy that neither in this Letter nor anywhere else in Paul's writings does Paul condemn slavery as a system.

The contents of the Letter (only one Chapter) are self-explanatory.